Environment : Journal of environmental management In Zimbabwe (JEMZ)

Authors:  Treggie Mpofu1, Frederick Maponga2, Nokuthaba Nyathi3 and Rejoice Hove4 

Journal of environmental management In Zimbabwe (JEMZ)

An Investigation into Causes of Veld Fires, Environmental Impacts, Socio–economic Impacts and challenges of Management: Case of Matabeleland North Province, Zimbabwe

Treggie Mpofu1, Frederick Maponga2, Nokuthaba Nyathi3 and Rejoice Hove4 

1Agricultural Technical and Extension Services

2Environmental Management Agency

3Forestry Commission

4Attorney General’s Office

Email: mpofutreggy@gmail.com

Abstract

during the fire season which occurs around July to November. The objectives of the study were: (i) to identify the major causes of veld fires in Matabeleland North Province. (ii)to investigate the environmental and socio–economic impacts of veld fires in Matabeleland North Province (iii)to assess the current veld fire management practices and control in Matabeleland North Province (iv)to identify the veld fire management challenges in Matabeleland North Province. To date no studies have investigated the causes, environmental impacts, socio–economic impacts and management challenges of veld fires in Matabeleland North Province. Such information is of paramount importance for planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of fire prevention and control practices. Establishment of extensive research is an integral requirement for the resolution of conflict over environment and fire management challenges. Our data was collected through a questionnaire, sources of information which

include the review of published literature, interviews with relevant government institutions and reports from formal regulatory agencies. This study found that the increasing rate of veld fires is mainly anthropogenic (90%) with less natural causes being cited (10%). The most affected subject of this study were the small-scale land resettlement farmers. Most veld fires result in negative impacts on sustainability of forests through destruction of soil fertility, crops and a range of animal species. The Environment Management Agency has recorded an increase of 84,97% in veld fire cases during the current fire season as compared to the same period last year. Results from the study showed that 78% of the respondents suggested that veld fires were caused by human negligence which include smoking, 30% suggested that hunting caused veld fires, 5% suggested that making charcoal also contributed to veld fires, 15% suggested that natural causes like igniting fire to clear land for cultivation and burning of crop residues also caused veld fires. Using the contingency valuation method, the estimated average income loss from veld fires USD1350 per hectare.

Key words: Environmental impacts, Environmental management, Fire prevention, Sustainability of forests, Veld fires.

Introduction

Veld fires are bush fires burning in the areas with combustible vegetation (Moore et al., 2019). Historically, fire has been used as a tool for natural resource management to help protect life, built assets and forestry resources. (Bond & Keeley, 2005). Fire management dates back to1890 a period of arrival of white settlers in Zimbabwe. Future regulations, by laws and legislation that were put in place included the Native Land Husbandry Act of 1951 and Natural Resources Act (No.9) of 1941 (Stockings, 1978). Other Acts that aimed at preventing fires include; the Parks and Wildlife Act (CAP 20:14) of 1996 and Forest Act (CAP19:05) of 1996 and the Traditional Leaders Act of 1998 and Environmental Management Act (CAP 20:27). Veld fire outbreaks continue to rise regardless of various Acts aimed at preventing fires. In the present-day Zimbabwe, there has been legislation promulgated to deal with incidences of veld fire with EMA being the great actor. It has been mandated with the task of giving a fine to the offenders and or causing their arrest by the law enforcers and at times causing their prosecution thereof. This alone however has not deterred people from violating laws enacted to deal with veld fires, hence the suggestion that there is need to have a review of the legislation in use in order to deter would be offenders with perhaps a punitive measure that would not cause the recurrence of such a crime.

During the period of former colonial settlers, most farms were fenced to restrict movement and also to control veld fires associated with hunting and honey harvest. However, resettled farmers lack resources for fencing leading to increased veld fire outbreaks in the Province. According to Russell-Smith (2019), the use of frequent prescribed fire to mitigate against high-intensity veld fires can have adverse effects on the forests’ ecosystems. Africa is a continent dominated by fires which contribute substantially to the total carbon emissions (Lehsten et al., 2008). According to Pulla et al. (2015) a varied and extensive ecosystem type in the tropics are characteristically adapted to seasonal water stress in zones of low rainfall. However, the ecological implications of high fire frequencies has caused negative impacts in Matabeleland North region. Uncontrolled fires are negatively affecting the economy by destroying economic enablers such as agriculture and key infrastructure (EMA report 2017). Findings by Maponga (2017) indicate that repeated burning meant continued losses in livestock and grazing land. Veld fires pose a great challenge for environmental management and sustainability in context of development of resettled farmers in Matabeleland North. Loss of biodiversity and economic losses due to veld fires requires a thorough understanding of causes, environmental impacts and management (WWF 2001). Source of veld fire impacts on soil may have strong influence on the composition and structure of post fire forests (Jain, et al., 2008) has been both natural and anthropogenic (Kodandapani, 2009). According to EMA report (2011) the recent increases in incidences of veld fires has been attributed to newly resettled farmers. The negative impacts of veld fires include: loss of livelihoods, loss of income, and loss of biodiversity, deforestation and interruption of the hydrological balance.

A framework for ecological assessment (EAM) helps to organize ecological conditions, diagnosing cause of existing or potential problems, and selecting management options for protecting valued ecological attributes. According to Andersen (1996) the ecological effects of fire have been poorly documented, but the major concern are the effects of burning practices, fire sensitive vegetation and fire regimes on the biota of savanna. Hence there is critical need for accurate mapping of burned areas for post-fire ecological assessment (Mpakari et al., 2020). Major veld fires cause irreparable damage to flora and fauna, throwing the entire ecosystem off balance. According to Dube (2015) veld fires have resulted in unnecessary material, environmental, economic and livelihoods losses. Fire forces the animals out of their habitat resulting in extinction of certain species. Fire destroys environmental ecosystem through decreasing number of trees and adding more impurities into the atmosphere in form of smoke and dust. Traditionally, fire has been used as a management tool to control vegetation structure

and composition for hunting and recycling of nutrients locked in live and dead biomass (Lake et al., 2017)).

It has been submitted by another scholar that preservation of the environment is critical to ensure stability (Loewe, 2012). The improper use of fire caused by honey harvesting has often led to veld fires which get out of control, destroying forests and grasslands. This results in loss of biomass which reduces grazing lands in affected areas. Spatial differences drive the regional environmental variation and the regions’ relationship with fire dynamics (Caroline et al., 2014). Africa is considered to be fire prone because the structure of the Sub-Saharan Savannas has been shaped by anthropogenic fires (Bond et al., 2003; Nyamadzawo et al., 2013). The long-term effects of uncontrolled veld fires are the reduction of biodiversity through destruction of flora and fauna, reduction of soil fertility, increased erosion rate and decreased infiltration which leads to insufficient water for livestock, wildlife, irrigation and people (www.wwf.org.uk, 2021). According to Frost (1992) veld fires are not peculiar to Zimbabwe alone, but other countries like Tanzania (Kilahama 2011) and other tropical countries such as Indonesia (Saharjo 1995,2009), South America (Pinto and Alvarado 2011; Nepstad et al.1999) and Australia (Ruppel 2015). In Northern Siberian Larch Forests, use of Sentinel-2 Imagery and Normalized ratio for assessing Fire severity (Delcourt et al., 2021).

Matabeleland North veld fires have become a threat to the conservation of biodiversity and human life. The resettled small-scale farmers are perceived as major drivers of veld fires (Ncube-Phiri et al 2015). According to EMA report (2013) resettled farming areas have recorded highest number of fires. Such events call for veld fire management programs and protection systems. According to Mudekwe (2007), fire protection systems in Zimbabwe were developed in 1960. However, veld fire incidences continue to rise due to anthropogenic activities. In some cases of arson, fires are used to settle disputes where employees are disgruntled over non-payment of salaries or low salaries (Nyamadzawo et al., 2013). Veld fires can rarely be prevented and effective hazard-mitigation strategies can manage the impact of the environment (Bond and Mercer, 2013). Veld fires can also be a result of unextinguished roadside fires used by travelers and long-distance truck drivers for cooking and warming especially in winter time. These observations were supported by EMA (2011) which showed that 60% of all veld fires occurred within major highways. Fire outbreaks have resulted in increased loss of agricultural produce, reduced food availability for both humans and animals, and reduced growth rate of vegetation and loss of equipment (WWF 2001; Nyamadzawo et al.,

2013). According to Mabaso (2019), acute impacts such as trauma, loss of life, loss of shelter and property like destruction of homes or damage to personal goods, can be a source of grief, stress and people whose lives are threatened by veld fires may experience a feeling of helplessness. In most African cultures, poor homeless people are usually stigmatized, and the loss of livelihood may result in incomplete disintegration of the family unit. According to Jordan (1985), veld fires affect different people differently hence costs and benefits vary among different segments of population and also site. The feminist theory found that veld fire negatively affects livelihood of females in society. Sturgeon (2009) asserts that without modern energy sources women rely on traditional sources like firewood, coal and agricultural wastes. Veld fires cause physical energy and time loss while fetching firewood from distant places. Fernandes et al. (1987) suggest that in the parts of African Sahara, women and children spend 100 to 300 days a year on gathering fuel and wood which is scarcer following veld fires. Furthermore, a report by Fisher (2013) indicated that in the rural areas where most people cannot afford corrugated roofing sheets, women and young girls waste hours and energy looking for thatch grass. Maponga (2018) also added that veld fire out breaks varies from one zone to another and impacts on property, human life, livestock, wild life resources, ecological support systems and livelihoods differently.

However, the impact of fires is not always negative since fires can also improve the growth of more palatable grass for grazing of animals and reduction of parasites such as ticks (WWF 2001). According to Sibiiti and Wein (1987), fires may stimulate germination of seeds after fires. Efforts by the major implementing agency on pre suppression strategies were implemented by EMA in 2020 to ensure that committees are adequately prepared for the season but they were not very successful due to the pandemic. In this paper, various sources of information including published literature, reports from authentic regulatory agencies were used to address the following objectives: (i) to identify the major causes of veld fires in Matabeleland North Province (ii) to investigate the environmental and socio–economic impacts of veld fires in Matabeleland North Province (iii)to assess the current veld fire management practices and control in Matabeleland North (iv) to identify the veld fire management challenges in Matabeleland North province.

Methodology

Study area

Matabeleland North Province has an approximate area of 8.39 million hectares of which 40% of the land is under woodlands and forest (FAO 2019). Grasses and woody plants dominate in all districts and that fuels the area during dry season. Reviews of burned area mapping algorithms are found in Boschetti et al. (2015) and Chuvieco et al. (2019). Most of algorithms use multi-temporal reflectance and/or derived spectral indices to capture the reduced post-fire reflectance and to take advantage of the temporal persistence of fire effects. Boschetti et al. (2015) further states that fire products derived from coarse (500m-1km) become an important source of information for the fire science and application communities. In this study a quantitative approach was developed through statistical values, intensity, frequencies of veld fires that were recorded by EMA report (2021). Basing on the deductive model, the sources of data from publications, interviews, scientific reports and expert knowledge were mainly used for validity.

Matabeleland North Province Districts:

Figure 1: The Matabeleland North Province. Source, FAO (2019)

It is of paramount importance for the government and stakeholders to create functional platforms towards controlling of veld fires as a way of sustaining the environment.

Data collection

The source of data includes publications, interviews, scientific reports and expert knowledge. An average of 7 questionnaires per district were administered to key informants where stratified random sampling was used in choosing the wards. Data was reviewed to reveal the causes of veld fire; environmental impacts; socio–economic impacts with particular emphasis on loss of lives and infrastructure, loss of assets and food security. Based on scientific literature and key informant interview review, most identified anthropogenic activities consisting of poaching, land clearing, hunting, smoking bee hives and disposal of cigarette caused major veld fire outbreaks. The sources of data revealed the causes and the spatial occurrence of fires in Matabeleland North Province were highly anthropogenic. Analysis of environmental impacts focused on loss of biodiversity, water resources quality and quantity and subsequent climate change impacts affecting biosphere-atmosphere exchange in greenhouse gases (GHGs). Based on the review of scientific literature and interviews held fire management practices which include pre-suppression strategies and field control measures were identified. However, considering the pandemic there is need for EMA and Forestry Commission to be more innovative in developing fire action plan, fire risk predictions, fire awareness meetings, monitoring fire management projects, issuing of orders and social media campaigns.

Results and Discussion

Our review revealed that anthropogenic causes of veld fire posed challenges that needs strategic management. According to Ngadze et al. (2020) accurate mapping of burnt areas in heterogeneous landscape remains a challenge globally. Deliberate fires comprise of fires used for hunting, early burning to reduce the fuel load and negative impacts of veld fires, smoking out bees and poaching (Samaringa 2014). According to Mudekwe (2007), deliberate veld fire causes also include cooking, waste dumping, and carelessness such as throwing out lit cigarettes, religious and traditional practice of annual burns to improve grazing. Most small holder farmers in Matabeleland North have limited resources and equipment to clear land and cultivate using mechanical equipment. This adds to more fire outbreaks as they use fire to clear land. The burning procedures results in uncontrollable fires which spread beyond the intended areas resulting in negative impacts to environment and several property damage. Veld fires are normally classified according to where they are burning for instance surface fires which burn along the ground and crown fires which burn the upper parts of trees. The risk associated with veld fires in Matabeleland North Province is substantial, and veld fire causes severe losses to

life, property and the environment in most districts. The consequences of veld fire out breaks were grouped into the following categories:

Fire outbreaks recorded in Matabeleland North 2015-2020

Fire trends and hectarage burnt in Matabeleland North 2015-2020

Matabeleland North Province has recorded the following veld fire out breaks in Table 1.

Table 1: Matabeleland North fire trends hectarage burnt 2015-2020-Source (EMA 2020)

Current fire management including pre-suppression and field control practice measures are to be identified in every Districts.

Matabeleland North Province fire trends total hectarage area burnt for the period 2015-2020 is shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Total areas burnt in Matabeleland North Province –Source (EMA 2020)

According to Phiri et al., (2011), resettlement of farmers through the land reform program which started in 2000 has resulted in the increase of veld fire incidents due to poor land

clearing methods. This practice of burning pasture land is common in Zimbabwe and elsewhere in the tropics (Nepstad et al., 1999; Dube, 2005). Locomotives along Bulawayo-Victoria Falls railway line have been reported to be the cause of accidental fires due to spontaneous combustion during very hot dry summers (Bond et al., 2003; Mudekwe 2007). Detection of key factors driving fire frequencies, especially protected areas has been emphasized and important for management of ecosystem (Kavhu and Ndaimani., 2022).

The effects of climate change has further exacerbated the effects of veld fires as the intensity of the heat caused by climate change results in the drying of forests and veld which in turn fuel veld fires. Higher rates of veld fires in Matabeleland North Province are mostly reported when it’s dry owing to the type of grasses and forests found in the region.

Recommendations

Veld fire management should increase awareness programs and intensify fire-fighting teams especially during this period of the Covid-19 pandemic where participation in fire programs is low. It is also critical to manage veld fires by practising early burning to reduce the negative impacts. It is critical for all stakeholders to be engaged so that the players can be prepared extensively to deal with veld fires especially during known seasons where veld fires are rampant. This is so that when veld fires strike, everyone is in the preparedness mode and is promptly responsive.

Modern technology would require fire fighters to be equipment ready and by traditional means, people should intensify fire guards. Major stakeholders like EMA should be incapacitated to integrate Sentinel-2 data with other remotely sensed data, as part of data analysis which will improve the overall accuracy (OA) when working with Sentinel-2 images. Sentinel-2 data produces high accuracies (> 80 %) with machine-learning classifiers such as support vector machine (SVM) and Random Forest (RF), thus there is need for Zimbabwe and other developing countries to effectively utilise the free access policy to integrate increased use of Sentinal-2 data. Those responsible for information dissemination regarding fire guards should increase training and public education. Such awareness campaigns help in combating the challenges faced as a result of ignorance surrounding veld fires. The Government should consider reviewing current environmental statutes in line with challenges faced in veld management and sustainability. It is also recommended that the custodians of the law should review policies and legislation around the commission of offenses emanating from veld fires. It

is submitted that if there could be a punitive punishment concept, it will be a mitigatory factor on its own as some are oblivion of the effects the destructive trail veld fires can leave. It would also deter would-be offenders. This punitive punishment could be in the form of a felt fine or incarceration and that would send a message to communities and individuals on how serious the law views veld fire offenses. The law enforcers such as the Zimbabwe Republic Police, Parks officials and Council officials should also be equipped and given arresting powers to offenders. This will certainly increase the responsiveness to veld fires. It is also our considered view that at communal level, traditional leaders should be endowed with powers to adjudicate on veld fire offenses and punish the offenders within the power of their jurisdiction. Another known issue that could assist in mitigating the starting of veld fires is land ownership. As a result of the land reform programme, most indigenous people were allocated A1 and A2 farms. By virtue of this allocation they became land owners but without title deeds. This lack of title to land which state is owned gives a sense of insecurity, uncertainty and reluctance to take responsibility measures to safeguard land they know they don’t own and could easily be moved from. If at least the Government could offer title to land, perhaps this challenge could, not only be minimized but circumvented. There is need for accurate and up to date information on areas affected by fire to better understand the drivers of fire activities as well as relevance for biogeochemical cycles, climate, air quality and to aid fire management. It is therefore important to improve environmental management and sustainability through improvement on burned area detection from observation satellite. There is also greater need to embrace climate change as permanent global phenomenon.

Conclusion

Veld fires have proven to be a menace among societies especially the farming community with the level of destruction it causes ranging from minimal to extensive depending on the extent. In some instances, causing destruction of properties and in some causing even loss of lives. It has been established therefore that veld fires are at a peak depending on the season. It has also been established that the causes of veld fires can be accidental or deliberate and for deliberate causes it is normally classified as arson which is a punishable offense that could attract a fine or 6 months imprisonment in terms of the Forestry Commission Act. Matabeleland North Province has not been an exception as it is known for being dry and arid and hence the fuelling of veld fires is not easily controllable.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the assistance that was given by the following members; Professor Never Assan (Zimbabwe Open University), Professor Ronald Mandumbu (Bindura University of Science Education), Mr Webster Gumindoga (University of Zimbabwe), Mr Thulani Ndlovu (Agritex), Mr Ntandokamlimu Nondo (EMA), Miss Simbiso Pedzisai (EMA) and Mr Chiposi Ngulube (Meteoroligical Services Department). Their support made the compilation this manuscript possible.

References

Andersen, A. N. (1996). Fire ecology and management. In Landscape and vegetation ecology of the Kakadu region, Northern Australia (pp. 179-195). Springer, Dordrecht.

Bond and Keely (2005) consider the analogy of fire and grazing. Just as herbivores .suppress seedlings by browsing, so fires burn seedlings and samplings, and both limit tree recruitment.-1433.

Bond, W. J., & Midgley, J. J. (2003). The evolutionary ecology of sprouting in woody plants. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 164(S3), S103-S114.

Bond T & Mercer D 2014, Subdivision Policy and Planning for Bushfire Defence … 7, no. 3, pp. 309-321. Miller C & Ager AA 2013, A review of recent advance

Boschetti, L., Roy, D. P., Justice, C. O., & Humber, M. L. (2015). MODIS–Landsat fusion for large area 30 m burned area mapping. Remote Sensing of Environment, 161, 27-42.

Caroline ER Science • 31 Jan 2014 • Vol 343, Issue 6170 • pp. … Historical and environmental differences drive the regional variation in the functional relationships …

Chuvieco, E., Mouillot, F., Van der Werf, G. R., San Miguel, J., Tanase, M., Koutsias, N., … & Giglio, L. (2019). Historical background and current developments for mapping burned area from satellite Earth observation. Remote Sensing of Environment, 225, 45-64.

Delcourt, C. J., Combee, A., Izbicki, B., Mack, M. C., Maximov, T., Petrov, R., … & Veraverbeke, S. (2021). Evaluating the differenced normalized burn ratio for assessing fire severity using sentinel-2 imagery in northeast siberian larch forests. Remote Sensing, 13(12), 2311.

Dube, E. (2015). Improving disaster risk reduction capacity of District Civil Protection Units in managing veld fires: A case of Mangwe District in Matabeleland South Province, Zimbabwe. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 7(1), 1-13.s in risk
analysis for wildfire management, International Journal of Wildland Fire, (22), pp. 1-14 …

Dube, O. P. (2005). A Collaborative Effort Towards Developing Capacity for Operational Fire Monitoring and Management System in Southern Africa, anelectronic publication of AIACC project. Gaborone

Environmental Management Authority (EMA) fire assessment report. 2011.
Environmental Management Agency (EMA), Benaby Printing and Publishing, Harare

Environmental Management Act http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/zim47834.pdf. Link to full text. http://www.parlzim.gov.zw. Repeals. Atmospheric Pollution

Prevention Act [Chapter ..

Environmental Management Authority 2020, How do you protect your property from veld fires? Every land owner has a responsibility to put in place the necessary fire suppression.

FAO 2019 Zimbabwe is a landlocked southern African country with a total land area of over 39 million hectares, with 33.3 million hectares used for agricultural …

Fernandes, W. and Menon, G. (1987) : Tribal Women and Forest Economy …

Fisher, K. E., Bishop, A. P., Fawcett, P., & Magassa, L. (2013, December). InfoMe@ teen design days: a multi-disciplinary, design thinking approach to community development. In Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Information and Communications Technologies and Development: Notes-Volume 2 (pp. 25-28).

EMA 2017 VELD FIRE ANNUAL REPORT (doc) · Annual Fire Report 2019 website (doc) · Annual Fire Report 2018 (1) (doc)… EMA 2019 Fire Annual Report 8 (pdf).

Environmental Management authority 2013. 1 179 274. 4. 1981. How can communities prevent veld fires? Fire prevention is the best option to minimise the risks associated with veld fires.

Frost [1992] van Wilgen [1984] Tainton and Mentis [1983] … MAP. Aridareas have few, large fires (so the fire score under- estimates the true area burned), while moistareas have many, small fires and the fire score overestimates the burned area …

Forest Act [Chapter 19:05]. … Sotani, Volunteer Farms 82, 83, 95 and 96 to the north-western beacon of Volunteer, from http://faolex.fao.org

Jordan, C. F. (1985). Nutrient cycling in tropical forest ecosystems. Principles and their application in management and conservation. John Wiley & Sons.

Jain, A. K., Nandakumar, K., & Nagar, A. (2008). Biometric template security. EURASIP Journal on advances in signal processing, 2008, 1-17.

Kavhu, B., & Ndaimani, H. (2022). Analysing factors influencing fire frequency in Hwange National Park. South African Geographical Journal, 104(2), 177-192.

Kilahama, F. 2011. Integrated Fire Management … Conference, Suncity, South Africa, (9-13 May 2011) p. 19. Available at; … Understanding the causes, socio- economic, environmental impacts and Management of Veld fires in tropical Zimbabwe. Fire Science …

Kodandapani, N., Cochrane, M. A., & Sukumar, R. (2009). Forest fire regimes and their ecological effects in seasonally dry tropical ecosystems in the Western Ghats, India. In Tropical Fire Ecology (pp. 335-354). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Lake, F. K., Wright, V., Morgan, P., McFadzen, M., McWethy, D., & Stevens-Rumann, C. (2017). Returning fire to the land: celebrating traditional knowledge and fire. Journal of Forestry, 115(5), 343-353.

Lehsten, V., Tansey, K. J., Balzter, H., Thonicke, K., Spessa, A., Weber, U., … & Arneth, A. (2008). Estimating carbon emissions from African wildfires. Biogeosciences Discussions, 5(4).

Loewe, M. (2012). Post 2015: How to reconcile the millennium development goals (MDGs) and the sustainable development goals (SDGs)? (No. 18/2012). Briefing paper.

Mabaso, S., Seyama, E., Mamba, S., Ginindza, S., Mthupha, N., Kunene, S., … & Mpapane, M. Understanding the Causes, Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts of 2019 Veld Fires in the Kingdom of Eswatini.

Maponga, R., Ahmed, F., & Manatsa, D. (2017). Determination of veld fire hazard zones in multiple tenure systems in Zimbabwe: Implications for intervention.

Maponga, R., Ahmed, F., & Mushore, T. D. (2018). Remote sensing-based assessment of veld fire trends in multiple interwoven land tenure systems in Zimbabwe. Geocarto international, 33(6), 612-626.

Moore, N. A., Camac, J. S., & Morgan, J. W. (2019). Effects of drought and fire on resprouting capacity of 52 temperate Australian perennial native grasses. New Phytologist, 221(3), 1424

Mudekwe, J. (2007). The impact of subsistence use of forest products and the dynamics of harvested woody species populations in a protected forest reserve in western Zimbabwe (Doctoral dissertation).

Mudekwe, J. (2007). Forestry Department. Forest.

Mpakairi, K. S., Ndaimani, H., & Kavhu, B. (2020). Exploring the utility of Sentinel-2 MSI derived spectral indices in mapping burned areas in different land-cover types. Scientific African, 10, e00565.

Nepstad, D. C., Verssimo, A., Alencar, A., Nobre, C., Lima, E., Lefebvre, P., … & Brooks, V. (1999). Large-scale impoverishment of Amazonian forests by logging and fire. Nature, 398(6727), 505-508.

Nyamadzawo, G., Gwenzi, W., Kanda, A., Kundhlande, A., & Masona, C. (2013). Understanding the causes, socio-economic and environmental impacts, and management of veld fires in tropical Zimbabwe. Fire science reviews, 2(1), 1-13.

Ncube-Phiri, S., Mucherera, B., & Ncube, A. (2015). Artisanal small-scale mining: Potential ecological disaster in Mzingwane District, Zimbabwe. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 7(1), 1-11.

Ngadze, F., Mpakairi, K. S., Kavhu, B., Ndaimani, H., & Maremba, M. S. (2020). Exploring the utility of Sentinel-2 MSI and Landsat 8 OLI in burned area mapping for a heterogenous savannah landscape. PLoS One, 15(5), e0232962.

Pinto and Alvarado (2011) …socio–economic impact of veld fires

Phiri, M., Zingwena, S., & Mahamba, S. M. (2011). Community-based fire management; experiences from the FAO funded project in the provinces of Manicaland and Matebeleland North, Zimbabwe. FAO, Integrated fire approach: From global monitoring to natural fire management, Fire management working paper FM/27/E. FAO, Rome, 51-60.

Pulla, S., Ramaswami, G., Mondal, N., Chitra-Tarak, R., Suresh, H. S., Dattaraja, H. S.,& Sukumar, R. (2015). Assessing the resilience of global seasonally dry tropical forests. International Forestry Review, 17(2), 91-113.

Ruppel, O. C. (2015). 6 Climate Change, Law and Development in Africa: A Reflection on Selected Aspects, Relations and Responses. In Legal Regimes for Environmental Protection (pp. 89-125). Brill Nijhoff.

Russell-Smith, J., Yates, C., Vernooij, R., Eames, T., van der Werf, G., Ribeiro, N., & Johnston, S. (2021). Opportunities and challenges for savanna burning emissions abatement in southern Africa. Journal of Environmental Management, 288, 112414.

Saharjo (1995) showed that even when there were changes
in soil chemical properties following burning in the shifting cultivation area not far from one of the research site, the fire did not improve soil fertility. MATERIALS AND METHODS …

Saharjo, B. H. (2009, February). Incident Command System in Fire Management, Indonesia Report. In International Symposium Use of Incident Command Systems in Fire Management.

Sabiiti, E. N., & Wein, R. W. (1987). Fire and Acacia seeds: a hypothesis of colonization success. The Journal of Ecology, 937-946.

Samaringa, A. (2014). An analysis on the causes and impacts of veld fires in ward nine (9) Seke district (Doctoral dissertation, BUSE).

Stocking, M. A. (1978) Relationship of Agriculture History and settlement

Sturgeon, J. C. (2009). Quality control: resource access and local village elections in rural China. Modern Asian Studies, 43(2), 481-509.

Relationship of agricultural history and settlement to severe soil erosion in Rhodesia. Zambezia, 6(2), 129-146.

TRADITIONAL LEADERS ACT. Act 25/1998, Modified by S.I. 430A/1999, 22/2001. ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS. PART I. PRELIMINARY.

World Wide Fund (WWF), 2001,Fire management manual, Wildlife management series,WWF, Harare

54. www.wwf.org.uk  , 2021